A New Type of Political Party System That Has Grown Out of Chinese Soil

As one of China’s basic political systems, the system of CPC-led multiparty cooperation and political consultation is a new type of political party system that has grown out of Chinese soil. Over our country’s glorious 75-year journey, it has played an irreplaceable role in the modernization of our system and capacity for governance. 

I

The type of political party system a country adopts is determined by its historical traditions and actual realities. China’s new type of political party system did not emerge from thin air. Rather, it was conceived over the course of China’s democratic revolution (1840–1949) and took shape during the political consultations in preparation for the founding of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. It represents a remarkable creative contribution by the Communist Party of China (CPC), one that is based on our Party’s review of the lessons of history both in China and around the world and its explorations to establish a distinctively Chinese political party system. 

After the advent of modern times, China was gradually reduced to a semi-colonial, semi-feudal society. The country endured intense humiliation, the people were subjected to untold misery, and Chinese civilization was plunged into darkness. Generations of Chinese struggled tirelessly to save the nation, and myriad political forces successively emerged on the historical stage. In the early 20th century, the Revolution of 1911 finally brought an end to the autocratic monarchy that had ruled China for several millennia, establishing the first republican state in Asia. China followed the example of Western countries by adopting parliamentary politics and a multiparty system. At one time, over 300 political groups were active in the country. Yet, rather than bringing democracy to China, the multiparty system led to a proliferation of political parties, all competing for power. The result was a political merry-go-round. Between 1912 and 1928, a span of just 16 years, China cycled through 10 different heads of state, 45 cabinets, and 59 prime ministers. The longest-serving prime minister held office for less than a year, while the shortest served for less than a day. The constant turnover of presidents, cabinets, and parliaments caused serious political upheaval. As one political figure aptly noted, “The people’s disdain for political parties has reached its peak.” In 1924, Dr. Sun Yat-sen declared, “For thousands of years, Chinese social sentiments, customs, and habits have differed widely from those of Western society. Hence, methods of social management in China are different from those used in the West, and we should not merely copy the West.”

Where the multiparty system failed, one-party dictatorship proved equally unworkable. After the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek established one-party dictatorship following the creation of the Nanjing National Government, it led to economic collapse, political isolation, and military defeat. This ultimately ended with the complete collapse of Kuomintang rule on the mainland. 

As President Xi Jinping put it, “After the Revolution of 1911, China experimented with various political forms such as constitutional monarchy, restoration of the traditional monarchy, the parliamentary system, the multiparty system, and the presidential system. Various political forces and their representatives appeared on the scene, but none were able to find the right answer. China was still torn apart and stuck in a state of poverty and weakness, foreign powers were still tyrannizing and plundering China, and the Chinese people were still living in misery and humiliation.” For modern China to successfully avoid subjugation and resist the forces of imperialism and feudalism, it would need to forge a new path based on a new political system. This weighty historic mission fell upon the shoulders of the CPC. 

On the day it was founded, the CPC made it its mission and aspiration to seek happiness for the Chinese people and rejuvenation for the Chinese nation. In the face of a grave national crisis caused by both domestic turmoil and foreign aggression, Chinese Communists saw that the strength of the working class alone would not be enough to ensure victory in the new-democratic revolution; rather, all progressive elements would need to be united to create a force powerful enough to secure complete victory. 

As early as at its Second National Congress in 1922, the CPC initially put forward a united front policy based on the proposition of establishing a democratic united front. During the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, it adopted the three-thirds system of democratic government in resistance base areas, in order to unite all forces for actively taking the fight against Japanese aggressors. This type of government, which was CPC-led and based on multiparty participation, was a forerunner to the subsequent system of CPC-led multiparty cooperation and political consultation. Mao Zedong saw the three-thirds system of democratic government as “the best political model for uniting all classes to fight against Japanese aggression.” He even stated, “After the war, it will be more necessary to apply these principles to unite the people of all classes and jointly build a new Chinese democratic republic.”

Following victory in the War of Resistance in 1945, the KMT tried frantically to suppress the democratic movement. In the struggle against KMT autocracy and the fight for democratic freedom, the various democratic parties, many of which were established during the Wars of Resistance and Liberation, gradually came to realize that only the CPC could save China. Only by following the CPC would it be possible to create a bright future for the country. Abandoning their illusions, they chose to firmly side with the CPC. By forging close ties with these parties and sincerely welcoming their involvement in consultations on founding a new China, the CPC demonstrated a clear and resolute commitment to multiparty cooperation. In the “May Day Slogans” to mark International Labor Day, published on April 30, 1948, the CPC proposed to convene a political consultative conference and establish a democratic coalition government. The call was enthusiastically received by democratic parties, prominent figures without party affiliation, and people from all sectors of society. This was the prologue for the CPC’s consultations with other parties, organizations, and people of various ethnic groups and from all walks of life on founding a new nation and laid the foundations for the system of CPC-led multiparty cooperation and political consultation. The first plenary session of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) was convened in September 1949. Along with the CPC, various other political parties, people’s organizations, and democrats without party affiliation were in attendance. The Common Program of the CPPCC, which was adopted at the session, became the interim constitution for the PRC. This session heralded the establishment of a new type of political party system in China. 

From this historical account, it is clear that China’s new type of political party system took shape as the CPC led the Chinese people on a journey to realize national independence, make our country strong and prosperous, and pursue a better life. It was also an inevitable result of the practice of people’s democracy. 

Yet, deeper cultural factors also lie behind the formation and development of this system. One rich source of nourishment has been our traditional culture. Cultivated over the course of more than 5,000 years, it embodies our deepest cultural and intellectual aspirations and has helped subtly shape our thinking and behavior. As President Xi has stated, China’s new type of political party system “not only conforms to the realities of contemporary China, but also embodies the best of time-honored cultural values long espoused by the Chinese nation, including pursuing the common good for all, promoting inclusiveness and harmonious coexistence, and seeking common ground while reserving differences.” Through the ages, the Chinese people have always held deep sentiments for their homeland. They espouse the principles of pursuing the common good and working selflessly for the public interest and believe in taking responsibility for the future of the nation. They uphold the ideals of selecting the virtuous and capable, acting in good faith, and showing friendliness to others, and hold that every person has a stake in our world, everyone is entitled to share in its benefits, and all should participate in its governance. Chinese civilization is distinguished by its inclusiveness. It does not seek to impose a single cultural model but enables diverse cultures to blend together to create a shared cultural heritage, while also being open to elements from other cultures around the world. Traditional Chinese culture is characterized by its pursuit of harmony. It emphasizes unity in diversity, coexistence, and common prosperity, and stresses the importance of coordination, interaction, dialogue, and complementarity between parties with different viewpoints and interests. Moreover, traditional Chinese culture incorporates traditions of collaborative and consultative governance, among other important principles. All these elements are part of the deep-rooted cultural make-up that has enabled China’s new type of party system to enjoy steady progress and development over a long period. 

II

As the founding of the PRC ushered in a new era for the country, the system of CPC-led multiparty cooperation and political consultation also entered a new stage. With the help of the CPC, China’s other political parties were able to take on a new look by clearly defining their nature, undergoing reorganization, and developing their membership. 

The new landscape that emerged following the revolutionary victory filled these political parties with great optimism, but it also raised the question of whether they should carry on or exit the stage. Some leaders believed that their parties were established to realize democracy. With this goal achieved, they believed their mission was accomplished, and they could honorably disband their organizations. However, the stance of Mao Zedong and other CPC leaders on this issue was clear-cut: the non-CPC parties should not be dissolved; rather, they should be further developed. 

Under Mao Zedong’s guidance, the CPC adopted the principles of long-term coexistence and mutual oversight as a basic policy for handling relations with other political parties at its Eighth National Congress in 1956, establishing a new phase of multiparty cooperation under socialist conditions. Under the leadership of the CPC, the other political parties joined the cause of socialist development and took part in the exercise of state power and the administration of national affairs. They encouraged their members and those they represented to actively contribute to national development through their respective roles. 

Following the launch of reform and opening up in 1978, Chinese Communists took stock of the primary challenges and changes in Chinese society. During this process, they affirmed the historical contributions of China’s other political parties and proposed that they had developed into a close political alliance of the socialist workers and patriots whom they represented. In December 1989, the CPC Central Committee issued guidelines on upholding and improving the system of CPC-led multiparty cooperation and political consultation. In 2005, it published guidelines on further strengthening this system. Under the CPC’s firm leadership, the theory underpinning China’s new type of political party system has been steadily enriched, and the implementation of this system in practice has been consolidated and advanced. 

From a theoretical standpoint, non-CPC parties have been designated as “political parties participating in national governance” in order to more accurately define their nature. The policy of “long-term coexistence and mutual oversight” has been expanded to incorporate the principles of “sincerity and sharing the rough times and the smooth.” It has been written into the Constitution that the system of CPC-led multiparty cooperation and political consultation will continue and develop long into the future. This has ensured that this system is reflected in the will of the state and has provided it with a constitutional underpinning. Furthermore, it has been defined as one of China’s basic political systems and as a new type of socialist party system adapted to Chinese conditions and characterized by distinctive Chinese qualities. 

From a practical standpoint, we have secured impressive results in developing China’s new type of political party system: A framework has been established to carry out consultation on major issues prior to decision-making; members of non-CPC parties and prominent figures without party affiliation now account for a considerable percentage of deputies to people’s congresses, the standing committees of people’s congresses, and the special committees of people’s congresses at all levels; and the channels through which other political parties and prominent figures without party affiliation deliberate on and participate in the administration of state affairs and exercise democratic oversight have been expanded. This has given fuller rein to the role of non-CPC political parties in multiparty cooperation. As the well-known Chinese democrat Fei Xiaotong, when reflecting on his own personal experience, once observed, “Thanks to the joint efforts by several generations of members from the Communist Party of China and other political parties, we are fortunate to be able to share this political system, which was developed by the Chinese people themselves under the CPC’s leadership.”

III

Now that socialism with Chinese characteristics has entered a new era, how can we better uphold, develop, and improve the system of CPC-led multiparty cooperation and political consultation? How should non-CPC parties position and present themselves in the new era in order to make greater contributions and play a bigger role? This is the defining question to be answered regarding multiparty cooperation in the current era. 

Since the 18th CPC National Congress in 2012, the Central Committee with Xi Jinping at its core has attached great importance to multiparty cooperation. With a view to developing socialist democracy, modernizing China’s governance system and capacity, and advancing national rejuvenation through Chinese modernization, it has made a series of major decisions and plans on multiparty cooperation for the new era, thereby spurring fresh progress in the development of China’s new type of political party system. The CPC has strengthened overall leadership over multiparty cooperation, advancing the development of relevant institutions and holding central conferences on the work of the united front and the CPPCC. It has issued a series of important guidelines on enhancing socialist consultative democracy, consultative democracy in the CPPCC, consultation with non-CPC political parties, the development of political parties participating in national governance under socialism with Chinese characteristics, and the work of the CPPCC in the new era. These efforts have helped further institutionalize and standardize multiparty cooperation, creating a Constitution-based framework that takes relevant CPC regulations and documents as the mainstay and is supplemented by relevant policies. To propel the development of socialist consultative democracy, the CPC has placed inter-party consultation at the forefront of its seven consultation channels. This form of consultation is underpinned by clear content, standard procedures, sound institutions, and strong guarantees, all of which have helped establish it as a regular feature of national political life. 

Since 2012, President Xi Jinping has, in a series of statements, presented new ideas, new thinking, and new conclusions on how to uphold, develop, and improve China’s new type of political party system. 

For example, President Xi has made it clear that the system of CPC-led multiparty cooperation and political consultation is one of China’s basic political systems and is the result of integrating Marxist political party theory with China’s realities. He has declared that leadership by the CPC is the defining feature of China’s new type of political party system and has emphasized that upholding its leadership and working together with the CPC is the fundamental political basis for multiparty cooperation. He has pointed out that this political system reflects the essence of socialist democracy, which is to ensure that the people run the country. He has stressed the need to develop whole-process people’s democracy and forge great unity and solidarity in order to pool as much strength as possible for collective endeavors. He has stated that socialism with Chinese characteristics provides the common ideological and political foundation for this political system in the new era and has emphasized the importance of maintaining the correct political direction and strengthening the ideological and political foundation underpinning the leadership by the CPC. He has defined non-CPC political parties as participating parties and prominent figures without party affiliation as participating forces in national governance under Chinese socialism and has called on them to serve as effective advisers, helpers, and partners to the CPC. He has underscored that in this new era of Chinese socialism, multiparty cooperation should take on a new look, ideological consensus should reach new heights, fresh accomplishments should be realized in the performance of duties, and a new outlook should prevail among all participating parties. He has highlighted the CPPCC’s role as an important political and organizational platform for this political system and stressed the need to create conditions for non-CPC political parties and prominent figures without party affiliation to better play their role in the CPPCC. He has declared that the key to better demonstrating this political system’s effectiveness lies in leveraging the positive role of non-CPC political parties and prominent figures without party affiliation and has emphasized the importance of inter-party consultation as a form of democracy and institutional channel. He has pointed out that this political system serves as an important institutional guarantee for China’s political stability and has stressed the need to regard the efforts to understand, uphold, and improve the system in this overarching strategic light. Finally, he has stated that this political system stands as a major contribution to political advancement of humanity. On this basis, he has stressed the need to speed up the development of relevant theoretical and discourse systems, so as to contribute to the political advancement of humanity with Chinese insights. 

Most notably, President Xi provided an in-depth and systematic exposition of the distinctive features and advantages of China’s new type of political party system during a meeting with political advisors from the China Democratic League and the China Zhi Gong Party, prominent figures without party affiliation, and those from the sector of returned overseas Chinese at the first session of the 13th National Committee of the CPPCC on March 4, 2018. He explained the three ways in which this system is new and the three things it effectively avoids. This system is new because it is the result of integrating Marxist political party theory with China’s realities, which enables it to truly and extensively represent and realize the fundamental interests of the greatest possible number of people and of all ethnic groups in the country on an ongoing basis. It thus effectively avoids the defects of old-fashioned political party systems, which represent only the select few or the vested interests. It is new because it unites all political parties and prominent figures without party affiliation to pursue common goals, thereby effectively avoiding the risks of inadequate oversight in one-party rule and the problems of power rotation and destructive competition in multiparty systems. It is new because it uses institutions, standards, and procedures to pool different opinions and suggestions as a basis for sound and democratic decision-making. It thus effectively avoids the defects of old-fashioned party systems where political parties make decisions and exercise governance in pursuit of their own interests or the interests of the classes, regions, and groups they represent, thus creating division in society. 

President Xi Jinping’s statements on upholding, developing, and improving China’s new type of political party system have provided sound answers to major theoretical and practical questions from the strategic perspective of maintaining and strengthening CPC’s overall leadership, developing whole-process people’s democracy, and leveraging the strengths of China’s political system. Such questions include why we should uphold and develop this system in the new era, what kind of form this system should take, and how we should go about upholding and developing it. President Xi has elaborated on the historical necessity and great advantages of this system and shed light on its theoretical foundations, cultural origins, distinctive strengths, and major significance. All this has helped open up new horizons for the theory of socialist democracy with Chinese characteristics, charting the way forward and providing fundamental guidance for multiparty cooperation in the new era. 

Since the new era began in 2012, the CPC has closely cooperated with other political parties based on a unity of purpose and action, thereby broadening the stage for multiparty cooperation. Non-CPC political parties have participated in national governance in important areas and deliberated on key issues with a focus on the central tasks of the CPC and the country. To advance Chinese modernization and coordinated implementation of the Five-Sphere Integrated Plan and the Four-Pronged Comprehensive Strategy, they have conducted in-depth research and offered suggestions on major issues such as supply-side structural reform, new urbanization, the Belt and Road Initiative, the rural revitalization strategy, the development of new quality productive forces in line with local conditions, and innovation-driven high-quality development. As a result, these parties are playing an increasingly important role in national political life. 

Looking back at the emergence and evolution of China’s new type of political party system, it is clear that this system is a remarkable political creation, jointly shaped by the Chinese people, the CPC, China’s other political parties, and prominent people without party affiliation. Having grown out of the soil of China, it boasts significant advantages and tremendous vitality. As a basic political system that supports China’s development, national rejuvenation, social progress, and people’s happiness, it can be considered a Chinese solution for the advancement of the global political party system. 

(Originally appeared in Qiushi Journal, Chinese edition, No. 18, 2024)